![]() ![]() Despite the equivalent results, not all software programs are alike and differences are noted in the output provided and estimators available. The same parameter estimates are obtained across programs underscoring that all meta-analyses are multilevel in nature. To clarify the multilevel nature of meta-analysis the four standard meta-analytic models are presented using multilevel equations and fit to an example data set using four software programs: two specific to meta-analysis (metafor in R and SPSS macros) and two specific to multilevel modeling (PROC MIXED in SAS and HLM). In this tutorial, we argue that the term “multilevel meta-analysis” is redundant since all meta-analysis can be formulated as a special kind of multilevel model. ![]() The term “multilevel meta-analysis” is encountered not only in applied research studies, but in multilevel resources comparing traditional meta-analysis to multilevel meta-analysis.
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